Communicative Competence

Due to the fact that the final goal of language learning is communication, it is not surprising that communicative competence has gained a lot of attention in the field of second language acquisition lately. Communicative competence can be defined as “the extent to which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different sociolinguistic contexts” (Ellis, 2008, p. 171). In other words, communicative competence is the ability to communicate effectively with others.

Communicative competence is may include different aspects. According to Ellis (2008) it has two components: linguistic competence, and pragmatic competence. The linguistic aspect of language learning can be seen as the knowledge of the language itself, including grammar, and vocabulary. Conversely, pragmatic competence is broader and less clear. It involves sociopragmatic and pragmalinguistic competences. Sociopragmatic competence is the perception of “when it is appropriate to perform a particular illocutionary act” (p. 171) such as greeting, request, apology, refusal, complaint, thanking, suggestion, criticism, or disagreement. On the other hand, pragmalinguistic competence is the ability to use a proper verbal and nonverbal form in a given situation.

Similarly, Cortazzi and Jin (2009) analysed five aspects of communicative competence: grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, strategic, and intercultural. The last one has been recognized as a crucial component of communicative competence. Martin described it as “social effectiveness (i.e., the ability to achieve instrumental and social goals) and appropriateness (i.e., suitable communication in a given situation in a particular culture)” (as cited in Cortazzi, & Jin, 2009, p. 198).

The importance of communicative competence for the success of all kind of speakers, natives, non-natives, EFL, and ESL learners, is clear. The question, then, is how to equip students with communicative competence. Even though there is not a perfect formula, the growing research on this field of linguistics has showed that explicit pragmatic instruction is more effective that an implicit approach. Bardovi-Harling emphasised this idea by stating that “without input, acquisition cannot take place” (as cited in McLean, 2004, p. 77). It is important that teachers give students as many opportunities as possible to learn and practise pragmatic skills. Besides, explicit consciousness-raising instruction is crucial since it is not possible for teachers to cover all the possible range of pragmatic issues. Awareness about cultural differences and similarities can enhance student’s communicative competence, and thus enable them to have successful relationships.

References

Cortazzi, M., & Jin, L. (2009). Cultural mirrors: materials and methods in the EFL classroom. In E. Hinkel (Ed), Culture in second language teaching and learning (pp. 196-219). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition. (2^nd ed.). Oxford: UOP.

McLean, T. (2004). In the classroom/En clase: Giving students a fighting chance: Pragmatics in the language classroom. TESL Canada Journal/Revue TESL du Canada, 21(2), 72-92.

Native Speakers Vs. Non Native Speakers

Whenever we talk about English language acquisition, the divide between native speakers and non-native speakers appears. The belief that native speakers are the ideal teachers of English, named “the native speaker fallacy” by Phillipson (as cited in Fathelbab, 2011, p. 64) is widely accepted. Even more, research has showed that students judge nativeness according to accent, appearance and ethnicity, stereotyping native speakers as “blonde, blue-eyed, American or English looking and sounding…with English first names” (Filho, as cited in Fathelbab, 2011, p. 65). Some teachers are considered as bad teachers just because they do not look like native speakers, even though they may have been born in or lived their entire lives in English speaking countries (Fathelbab, 2011). This situation creates inequalities in hiring practices and salaries between NESTs (native English speaking teachers) and NNESTs (non-native English speaking teachers). Even when the “80% of ESL/EFL teachers worldwide” (Canagarajah, as cited in Fathelbab, 2011, p. 64) are NNESTs, NESTs has always received a superior status, regardless their competence as teachers.

However we can agree with Phillipson that “teachers are made rather than born whether teachers are native or non native” (as cited in Fathelbab, 2011, p. 64). Both groups have strengths and weaknesses. The main strength of NESTs is their high proficiency and communicative competence, and the main strength of NNESTs is being a successful model for the EFL/ESL students (Medgyes, as cited in Fathelbab, 2011), and “the advantage of seeing a culture form a distance” (Byram, Gribkova & Starkey, 2002, p.18).

Therefore, as students, parents, or teachers it is important to keep in mind that nativeness is not a synonym of good teacher. The competence of a teacher involves much more than the country of birth. This needs to be understood by all the educational community to stop unfair inequalities.

References

Byram, M., Gribkova, B., & Starkey, H. (2002). Developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching, a practical introduction for teachers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Fathelbab, H. (2011). NESTs (Native English Speaking Teachers) & NNESTs (Non-Native English Speaking Teachers): Competence or nativeness?. TESOL Journal, 64-67.

Teaching Culture

The importance of culture as an inseparable aspect of language learning is understood for most language teachers nowadays. However when talking about how to implement the integration of culture in the classroom there is no perfect method or recipe. Because culture is complex, dynamic, and includes so many aspects of life, it is important to include a variety of resources and activities when teaching culture.

Probably the main resource for English teachers is the textbook. Textbooks can focus on the culture of the students, the target culture, or many different cultures. It is better to use those textbooks that focus on either the target culture or different cultures, because it gives the students the opportunity to know others’ points of view as well as understand better their own culture when comparing it to other cultures. So, if the teacher has the opportunity to choose the textbook it is important to pay attention to the cultural aspect (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey, 2002; Cortazzi, & Jin, 2009). Nevertheless, the textbook should not be the only source of information and should not be seen as the final authority. Teachers must have and encourage a critical attitude when reviewing the readings and activities. There are many other resources and activities that can be used to integrate culture in the English lessons: TV programs (Scollon, 2009; Byrd, Hlas, Watzke, & Montes Valencia, 2011), films (Bao-he, 2010; Byrd et al., 2011), contact with native speakers (Bao-he, 2010; Byrd et al., 2011), authentic texts, audio recordings, visual aids such as maps, photograhs, diagrams, cartoons (Byram et at., 2002), slides (Byrd et al., 2011), simulation games (Brown, 2000), songs, role playing, research on countries and people (Genc, & Bada, 2005), discussions, collecting data (Grossi, 2009), writing activities (Turkan, & Celik, 2007), cultural materials from Internet, realia (objetcs, tools, and artifacts), radio, newspapers, magazines, traveling abroad, and visiting museums or other cultural attractions (Byrd et al., 2011).

It is important to remember that culture is not another skill that must be taught like reading, writing, listening or speaking; culture is part of the language itself and should be naturally integrated in every lesson and activity, along with the four skills of language. Teachers are not expected to cover a culture curriculum but to develop in their students a discovery attitude. To include a variety of resources and approaches is good because it gives a more real perspective and also covers different learning styles. Nevertheless, the materials and activities have to be presented in a way to encourage critical thinking. It is important not to present the content as a fact. It is better to give opportunity to discuss and share different opinions about what has been presented. Therefore, critical and objective consideration is desirable and should be encouraged, because our goal as teachers is not to present facts and tips about culture, but to help students to develop an open, respectful, and even curious attitude towards other cultures.

References

Bao-he, Z. (2010). How to enhance cross-cultural awareness in TEFL. Cross-cultural communication, 6(2), 100-104.

Brown, D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4^th ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson.

Byram, M., Gribkova, B., & Starkey, H. (2002). Developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching: A practical introduction for teachers. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.

Byrd, D. R., Hlas, A. C., Watzke, J., & Montes Valencia, M. F. (2011). An examination of culture knowledge: A study of L2 teachers’ and teacher educators’ beliefs and practices. Foreign Language Annals, 44(1), 4-39.

Cortazzi, M., & Jin, L. (2009). Cultural mirrors: Materials and methods in the EFL classroom. In E. Hinkel (Ed), Culture in second language teaching and learning (pp. 196-219). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University.

Genc, B., & Bada, E. (2005). Culture in language learning and teaching. The Reading Matrix, 5(1), 73-84.

Grossi, V. (2009). Teaching pragmatic competence: Compliments and compliment responses in the ESL Classroom. Prospect, 24(2), 53-62.

Scollon, R. (2009). Cultural codes for calls. In E. Hinkel (Ed), Culture in second language teaching and learning (pp. 181-195). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University.

Turkan, S., & Celik, S. (2007). Integrating culture into EFL textbooks and classrooms: Suggested lesson plans. Novitas-ROYAL, 1(1), 18-33.

Culture and Assessment

The very nature of culture teaching and learning make it impossible to use the same kind of assessment that is probably proper for other areas of language like grammar, reading or writing. However, the increasing need to include culture as part of the curriculum in language courses makes it necessary to find some way to assess the progress of the students in this area. Even though acquisition of information like social etiquette and politeness, and understanding of knowledge as in the case of historical facts can be more easily measured, they are just part of the intercultural competence. When we come to take into account attitudes, it is mandatory that we find different types of assessment (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey (2002).

The “European Language Portfolio” developed by the Council of Europe offers one of the possible approaches to assess intercultural competence. This portfolio is composed by three parts: the “Passport” that indicates the student’s proficiency in the target language; the Language Biography” which includes the student’s planning, reflexion and self assessment on his/her own progress; and the “Dossier” that is a collection of materials and experiences. This approach emphasises self-assessment which encourage the student´s self awareness of his/her own abilities and progress, including those “acquired inside and outside the classroom” (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey (2002).

Another approach for cultural assessment is the one presented by Kinnear, Steinman, and Swain (2011) which is called “Dynamic Assessment”. Among other techniques mentioned as useful like tests and portfolios, they present dynamic assessment from the “Socio Cultural Theory” perspective, which see the intercultural competence acquisition as a process rather than a product to be achieved. The assessment is done along this process, and feedback is important to guide students to develop sociocultural competence.

Even though these approaches represent a good starting point regarding intercultural competence assessment, there are still questions that do not have hitherto final answers like validity, reliability, scoring and fairness (Kinnear, Steinman, & Swain, 2011). Nevertheless, there are two clear issues we need to address when assessing culture: flexibility and integration. Culture is not an objective subject, it is shaped by the context and people´s experiences; thus, it is not possible to use the same measurement with all students and in all situations, we need to be flexible. Also, integration is important. Since culture involves so many aspects of life, when assessing intercultural competence we have to use different methods to integrate them all, or at least, most of them.

References

Byram, M., Gribkova, B., & Starkey, H. (2002). Developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching: A practical introduction for teachers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Swain, M., Kinnear, P., & Steinman, L. (2011). Sociocultural theory in second language education: An introduction trough narratives. Tonawanda, NY: Multilingua Matters.

Globalization and English

We lived in a globalized world where English is spoken by people from many different countries, and where more and more countries are changing their status from EFL to ESL, and from ESL to English as the first language. The number of people who speaks English in the world is one out of five, and the other four are being pushed to learn it too. English is far the most spoken language in the world. The domain of English includes “books, newspapers, airports and air-traffic control, international business and academic conferences, science technology, diplomacy, sport, international competitions, pop music and advertising” (Graddol, 1997, p. 32). This situation have raised some controversial issues: the extent to which the spread of English has hindered the literacy development in other languages, the socio-economic division it represents, and the detrimental results of the imperialism of Eurocentric ideologies over other cultures’ ideologies (Brown, 2000). Even though it is a fact that the ownership of English cannot be claimed by two or three countries anymore, the reality is that for many reasons the influence of Western over the rest of the English speaking countries is still very strong.

In this context, it is important to develop an extra sensitive position towards different languages and cultures. Even though as language teachers we will be limited somehow by the governmental or/and school policies and the material available regarding cultural issues, we must teach our students by example and preach to be respectful and open towards different languages and cultures.

References

Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson.

Graddol, D. (1997). The future of English? A guide to forecasting the popularity of the English language in the twenty-first century (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-elt-future.pdf

Language and Culture: Connected but not the Same

The connexion between culture and language has been a topic of interest for many researchers, because it is obvious that a relationship exists, but to determine the degree one is influenced by the other is not an easy task. The first step in this regard may be to find a definition of each term. The Webster Dictionary defines Language as “the words, their pronunciation, and the methods of combining them used and understood by a community”. On the other hand culture is defined by the same dictionary as “the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group; also: the characteristic features of everyday existence (as diversions or a way of life) shared by people in a place or time” (2011). We can see that both language and culture have a common scope, that is community or a group of people. Furthermore, some communities differentiate from others by their language, as it is the case in AIIAS. A common language presupposes common cultural features. In this way we can agree with DeCapua and Wintergerst who argue that language influences the way people perceive the world, and also “each culture places its own individual imprint on a language” (2004, p.25). It is undeniable that culture and language have a intertwined relationship. That is why some cultures that place emphasis on honour and social categorization have a wider variety of words to express respect and politeness. And also there are languages that have many words to name different colors, or relationships within a family, when others have just the basic classification. These differences show the importance each culture give to a certain category (DeCapua and Wintergerst, 2004).

At the same time, the connexion between culture and language is not absolute, otherwise no translation, neither successful cross-cultural communication would be possible (Kumaravadilu, 2008). The fact that people can master a second language and still lack pragmatic skills also shows that even when culture and language are connected, they are not the same. Many linguistic and language teachers have already found that the language teaching does not presuppose culture teaching, but that the inclusion of both into the language classroom is essential for the success of the second language learning experience.

We can conclude that because language and culture share a single scope: a common group of people, they are closely but not inextricably connected; and the attempt to separate one from another may result in communication problems. For language teachers it is essential to intentionally include both aspects in their practices, because the more language and culture are connected in everyday language lessons, the more successful will be the communication experience of the students.

References

DeCapua, A. & Wintergerst, A. (2004). Crossing cultures in the language classroom. Ann Arbor, MI: Michigan University.

Kumaravadivelu, B. (2008). Cultural globalization and language education. A study of interactional patterns, pathologies, and paradoxes. New Haven, CT: Yale University.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (2011). Culture. Retrieved December 27, 2011 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture?show=0&t =1324609715

Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (2011). Language. Retrieved December 27, 2011 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/language?show=0&t =1324609715

Otherization vs. New Set of Eyes

The influence of culture upon people’s worldview and attitudes is very strong, even when most of the time we are not aware of it. Just when we have the opportunity to travel to a different country we realize that there are other ways to do things and to understand certain situations. Sometimes when we are confronted to a culture very different from our own, we tend to see the people who are different as inferior or less capable than us. This phenomenon is called otherization. Kumaravadilu (2008) defines it as “a crudely reductive process that ascribes an imagined superior identity to the self and an imagined inferior identity to the other” (p. 16). Otherization is a natural reaction especially when we don’t know other cultures very well. It is like if we were trying to solve the conflict between what we believe is right and other people’s beliefs. But, if it is a natural reaction when we find something different, does it change over time? Does knowing more about other cultures reduce otherization? Or, does it just help us to have a proper social behavior but we still look at others as inferiors?

I think we can find an answer if we consider that otherization occurs even within the same culture, because there is no homogenous culture. Every culture has subcultures, and also “cultures are dynamic” (Decapua & Wintergerst, 2004, p. 12), which means that different generations of the same family may differ culturally. So when we meet new people, even if we have been born in the same country, the first reaction we have is probably influenced by prejudices. We usually look carefully and even analyse new people. But over the time, when we get to know them better, our feelings and attitudes towards them change. Sometimes we become very good friends and we laugh when we remember our first thoughts about them. In the same way, I believe that when we just go to a different country and are confronted to different morals and values, our first reaction is negative, but when we know the people better, our attitude change, and probably some of our customs change, also. Even when we keep our own values and manners, we do not see other’s way as wrong or inferior, just different, because our perspective has changed. As Decapua & Wintergerst (2004) described it, we will have two set of eyes, then, or maybe a new and different one. In this way, the more we travel, the wider will be our worldview. As language teachers, it is important to encourage an open attitude towards different cultures in our students, even if it is not possible for them to travel; we can still share our enthusiasm to know about other cultures trough different materials. And this positive attitude toward different cultures will be reflected on a positive attitude towards the second/foreign language.

References

DeCapua, A. & Wintergerst, A. (2004). Crossing cultures in the language classroom. Ann Arbor, MI: Michigan University.

Kumaravadivelu, B. (2008). Cultural globalization and language education. A study of interactional patterns, pathologies, and paradoxes. New Haven, CT: Yale University.